Herbal Medicine
For thousands of years, people have taken plants and plant-based substances as medicines. Such cures are still used more commonly than modern drugs in many regions, with some 80 percent of the population in certain developing countries relying on herbal medicines. ( 26 ), their effectiveness is largely unsupported by science-based evidence. Many Western doctors therefore discourage their use, especially for seriously ill people. For such patients, using scientifically proven drugs can mean the difference between life and death.
Research has highlighted other problems, too. Scientists reviewed over 50 studies on herbal medicines and found that the chemicals they contain can cause organ damage, and that these medicines can be harmful when used in combination with other drugs. The scientists say such effects are generally not reported in the societies where the medicines are commonly used. This leads patients to ( 27 ). In fact, the majority of these people see no reason to even tell their doctors they are using the medicines, putting them at risk of dangerous side effects when the medicines interact with doctor-prescribed drugs.
Supporters of herbal medicines say the amount of data from clinical studies is increasing, and this can help people understand which medicines are safe. They also feel that herbal medicines and modern, doctor-prescribed drugs ( 28 ). Instead of viewing herbal medicines as an alternative to standard drugs, which are often necessary in emergencies or to fight serious infections, people should instead use them to maintain overall health and wellness. If taken properly, supporters say, both traditional and modern medicines can be safely used in combination with each other.
Memory and Language
The outcomes of court cases often depend on evidence given by people who witnessed crimes or accidents. But can their memories always be trusted? In one famous psychology experiment, students were divided into groups and shown a video of a car accident. One group was asked, “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” For another group, the words “smashed into” were replaced with “hit.” The results showed that those who were asked the question with the words “smashed into” estimated an average speed of 65.2 kmh, compared with 54.7 kmh for those asked with “hit.” This demonstrates that the descriptions witnesses give can depend on ( 29 ).
In a followup experiment, students were shown another video of an accident and asked similar questions using the words “smashed” and “hit.” This time they were also asked if they had noticed any broken glass. The windows were undamaged in the video, but the students who had been asked the question using “smashed” were far more likely to report having seen broken glass. This tendency is even more disturbing because the students had ( 30 ).
Watching a video of a car crash, however, is not the same as being present at the scene of one, critics argue. They say that the students’ memories were more easily influenced because they did not have the emotional experience of seeing the accident in person. ( 31 ), the students were likely less motivated to give accurate answers. Other studies have also shown that manipulative questions have less effect on people who have witnessed real crimes, suggesting that the experiments’ conditions may have played a role in shaping the results.
Impostor Syndrome
Many people will experience “impostor syndrome” at some point in their lives. Those who are affected by this condition have trouble accepting or believing in their own success, no matter how capable or experienced they may be. Often, they think their achievements are due to good fortune or outside circumstances rather than their actual ability. Impostor syndrome affects people of various backgrounds working in many fields, and it can have different consequences for each person. Some feel they must prove their worth by working far harder than they need to. Others fear they will lose their job when their supposed lack of skill is discovered, so they distance themselves from colleagues as much as possible.
The cause of impostor syndrome has been debated by experts. It may have something to do with people’s basic personality traits, such as a tendency to worry, or it could possibly have its roots in an individual’s upbringing. For instance, when children are constantly praised, even for minor achievements, it can cause them to lose faith in their real abilities. Impostor syndrome can also arise in adulthood due to factors out of a person’s control. One such factor is institutional discrimination, where the atmosphere in a work or academic environment makes people who are not of a certain race, gender, or other characteristic stand out.
Several studies have shown that individuals in minority groups who report feelings of “impostorism” also experience higher levels of anxiety and depression. This may be due not only to discrimination but also to a lack of representation among professors, managers, and other authority figures. According to psychology professor Thema Bryant Davis, when people in the working world do not see others of their gender or race in positions of power, there is no “signal of the possibility of advancement.” Without this, it is often difficult to have self-confidence and maintain a positive attitude in life.
Climate Change and the Sámi
The Sámi people, who are native to the Arctic regions of Europe, have historically made a living through fur trading and reindeer farming. However, the reindeer herds they rely on are under severe pressure due to climate change and the resulting habitat loss. Unstable temperatures in winter cause snow to melt and then freeze into ice, which prevents reindeer from accessing the plants they need for food. Though this has also occurred in the past, rapid climate change has caused it to happen more frequently. Due to this, reindeer herds are losing more animals to starvation, and lack of nutrition has reduced birthrates. Furthermore, as global warming makes northern areas more accessible, companies are moving into traditional Sámi territory to pursue mining, carry out oil and gas exploration, and promote tourism. This has further restricted the food available to the Sámi’s reindeer herds, and many Sámi worry that increased activity in their traditional lands could end their way of life altogether.
The decline of reindeer herds has caused many Sámi to experience financial and emotional difficulties. Some teenagers and young adults have fled to cities for work, and these urban Sámi have found themselves alienated and the target of discrimination due to their heritage. With their lives uprooted and their cultural traditions being lost without access to vibrant Sámi social groups, many suffer from significant mental health problems. The problem extends to traditional Sámi communities, with higher-than-average suicide rates reported, especially among young males. Few seek help, though, as mental health is a taboo topic for the Sámi. Although exact numbers are unknown, surveys suggest that most Sámi have a relative or friend who has committed suicide.
Efforts are under way to tackle some of these problems, however. Social programs, for example, are being introduced to offer emotional support to young Sámi and encourage discussion about the discrimination they experience. Mental health issues in traditional Sámi communities, though, are often said to be based on economic uncertainty and worries related to the impact of climate change. To address these fears, politicians have been listening to the Sámi and taking greater care to consider the potential consequences that government decisions may have on their communities. By giving the Sámi a way to influence decisions that affect them directly, the stress and hardship associated with environmental or economic decline can be reduced. More importantly, it is hoped that the Sámi themselves can have greater control over maintaining their traditional way of life.
Lemons and the Mafia
The organized-crime group known as the Mafia first appeared on the island of Sicily in the 1800s. In the years since its emergence, its illegal activities, which include bribery and fraud, have become well known, but its origins were unclear. Recent research by a group of economic historians has, however, uncovered an unexpected connection between the Mafia and a common fruit.
In the 1700s, it was discovered that lemon juice prevented a deadly disease called scurvy, leading to greatly increased demand for lemons, which caused revenues from the fruit to skyrocket. Sicily was one of the few places where lemons could grow, but lemon farming was limited to certain locations on the island due to the fruit’s sensitivity to frost. In addition, the shift to large scale lemon growing required huge financial investments to build facilities and develop irrigation systems. High walls were also constructed to protect lemon trees from thieves, as without such safeguards, an entire year’s harvest could go missing overnight.
Rising demand for the fruit saw profits continue to increase in the 1800s, but the situation was complicated by the fact that Sicily was ruled by kings with ancestral ties to the Spanish royal family. The rulers were regarded as outsiders, and unpopular policies like forced military service caused dissatisfaction and unrest among the population. Local poverty and a lack of public funding, particularly in rural areas, led to an increase in crime. This forced farmers to find their own way to deal with the threat of lemon theft. They began employing local strongmen, who eventually became the Mafia, to protect their orchards, offering lemons as payment.
While the Mafia may have originally provided a legitimate service that kept lemon crops safe from thieves, that did not stay true for long. It began forcing farmers to accept its services against their will, using violence and intimidation when it encountered resistance. Mafia members then began acting as middlemen between sellers and exporters, manipulating the market to ensure substantial profits. They soon forced their way into other areas of the industry, such as transportation and wholesaling, and eventually their power grew to cover all aspects of lemon production. Some politicians attempted to address these activities, but widespread government corruption allowed the Mafia to extend its influence to many areas of politics and law enforcement.
According to researcher Arcangelo Dimico, one of the historians who researched the connection between lemons and the Mafia, the group’s rise is an example of the “resource curse.” He explains that the combination of a source of extreme wealth together with weak social and political systems can lead to the rise of conflicts or illegal activities, which can leave a country worse off economically than if it had not possessed the valuable resource in the first place. Examples can be seen in modern times, such as wealth from diamonds funding the growth of private armies in some African nations. Like Sicily’s Mafia, these groups often employ criminal methods to gain control over resources and local populations. Using Dimico’s study, economists, sociologists, and political scientists can better understand this phenomenon and help governments fight against it.
