An Ancient Work Force with Japanese Dictionary

　While many archaeologists seek mummies and golden treasures beneath Egypt’s sands, Mark Lehner is on a quest to investigate a more mundane subject: the lives of the laborers who constructed the pyramids. Though Lehner’s research is not glamorous, he contends that his archaeological finds are beginning to reveal, in his words, “( 26 ).” During his long career, Lehner’s discoveries have shed light on the logistics of feeding, organizing, and providing accommodation for the thousands of laborers needed for the massive construction projects. He has unearthed not one but two lost cities which housed workers in the vicinity of the pyramids. Lehner argues the epic scale of the undertaking was integral to the development of national unity because it brought together laborers from throughout the enormous kingdom, which, as Lehner notes, effectively “bound all these disparate areas . . . into a whole.”

　Lehner’s findings contradict the common belief that the construction of the pyramids ( 27 ). This idea originates in the writing of the Greek historian Herodotus, who made the claim in his Histories many centuries after the pyramids’ completion. However, Lehner’s excavations of the food preparation facilities and the massive barracks in which workers were housed have turned up evidence of slaughtered cattle and numerous religious inscriptions. These indicate that the builders who worked on the pyramids were not being forced to labor under the threat of whips but rather were motivated by feasts of prime beef and increased odds of obtaining an eternal afterlife.

　While the skilled main work force was permanent, a rotating system of manual laborers was also utilized. Though service was mandatory, the duration appears to have been temporary, and these laborers would have had a strong ( 28 ). Lehner explains this attitude, saying, “People were not atomized, separate individuals with the political and economic freedom that we take for granted.” In Egypt’s hierarchical civilization, every single individual had a duty to provide service to someone else even the most elite officials in the kingdom. As Lehner’s work continues, evidence is accumulating that the Egyptian pharaohs presided over a civilization even more complex and cohesive than had been previously imagined.

Language Diversity with Japanese Dictionary

The human race exhibits an incredible degree of linguistic diversity, with more than 7,500 documented languages in existence today. Researchers have long been puzzled, however, by the question of why languages ( 29 ). The South Pacific nation of Papua New Guinea, for example, covers less than 0.5 percent of Earth’s land area yet is home to about 10 percent of the planet’s languages. Russia, for all its immensity it covers a whopping 11 percent of Earth’s land area is home to a mere 1.5 percent of the planet’s languages. A global­scale analysis performed by biologist Xia Hua of the Australian National University has recently offered some insight into the phenomenon, examining the two predominant theories: isolation and ecological risk.

 Hua concluded that the isolation theory ( 30 ). Landscape features such as rivers have long been regarded as barriers, and the resulting isolation was believed to lead to distinctions in languages among various groups. Hua’s research did confirm a direct link between the presence of rivers and the number of languages in a region. However, further analysis indicated that rivers were only contributing to diversity because they facilitated the survival of smaller populations. Hua writes that rivers “seem to act more as an ecological resource than a barrier to interaction.”

 The ecological risk hypothesis holds that factors such as climate and resource availability are prime determiners of language diversity, and Hua found that harsher climatic conditions in a region result in fewer languages being spoken. Her research indicated that language diversity correlates strongly to latitude, with vastly more languages being spoken in equatorial regions and fewer in northern and southern regions. In regions near the equator, which boast consistently warm temperatures and plentiful rainfall, growing seasons are much longer. It seems logical, therefore, that ( 31 ). This allowed a diverse range of languages to develop among independent, smaller cultural groups. In contrast, regions with cold, barren winters made communication among groups of people over distances essential for obtaining resources and maximizing productivity, so the development of disparate languages was not favored. The ecological risk hypothesis is supported by the latitudinal patterns of language diversity observed worldwide.

Chile under Pinochet with Japanese Dictionary

 In Chile’s 1970 presidential race, voters elected Salvador Allende, a Marxist who ran on a socialist platform of nationalizing the mineral industry and redistributing land and income. Just three years later, the Chilean army, led by General Augusto Pinochet, overthrew Allende and installed a military dictatorship. Pinochet and his supporters were convinced the previous regime had led the nation to the brink of civil war. Although Allende had been legitimately elected, his socialist government’s policies and actions caused turmoil among the people and threatened commerce, creating an unbridgeable gulf that divided the country. These divisions were encouraged by the US government, which drastically reduced aid to Chile as a means of political opposition, and by foreign corporations with interests in valuable minerals such as copper. In any case, Pinochet’s coup d’état ended Chilean democracy, which dated back to the 1930s, and ushered in an era of repression and brutality unparalleled in the nation’s history. Pinochet banned opposition parties, suspended the constitution, and cracked down on political dissent. His regime had more than 100,000 citizens arrested, tortured tens of thousands, and murdered some 3,000 “enemies of the state.” For many Chileans, the next 17 years were a nightmare of fear and repression.

 Following the takeover, Pinochet appointed a group of US­educated Chilean economists who, in stark contrast to Allende’s nationalization and central planning, instituted a radical free­market economic policy that led to high levels of unemployment and bankruptcies within the financial sector. Wages decreased and welfare spending was slashed, hitting the lowest segment of society the hardest. Still, after an economic crisis in 1982, Chile’s GDP began to grow at a steady average rate of 5.9 percent, the fastest in Latin America. Foreign companies whose assets had been seized by the Allende government were invited back, and state owned companies were privatized, although the copper industry by far the biggest earner of foreign currency remained under direct state control. The export sector flourished, and poverty levels fell from 50 percent in 1984 to 34 percent in 1989. Although some world leaders credited Pinochet for these achievements, the crucial role of the country’s vast mineral wealth cannot be underestimated.

 During the second half of his dictatorship, Pinochet’s iron grip relaxed slightly. A new constitution in 1980 opened the way to a plebiscite, in which the people could give an up­or­down vote on his continued rule. Pinochet hoped his economic success would enable him to remain in power, but in 1988, Chileans voted for a restoration of democracy with 56 percent in favor and 44 percent opposed. Stepping down in 1990, Pinochet nevertheless retained command of the armed forces and laid claim to a lifelong Senate seat. Chile continued to prosper as a result of successive administrations building upon the economic foundations he had put in place, and the country is widely considered a Latin American success story. Yet it was only when the shackles of dictatorship were removed that an investment-led boom would improve overall living standards. While his supporters believe he saved the country from becoming a communist state in the mold of Cuba, for many Chileans, Pinochet’s economic successes will always be overshadowed by the oppression they endured under him.

The Positive Side of Psychopaths with Japanese Dictionary

 Psychopaths – who are, incidentally, most often men constitute roughly 1 percent of the population. What sets psychopaths apart is their inability to empathize with the emotions of other people. Self­centered, superficially charming, and persuasive, they pursue their goals with cold detachment, using whatever means they consider necessary. Moreover, they have little consideration for the social consequences of their actions. Taken at face value, these traits would appear to be highly dangerous and toxic, as reinforced by the popular Hollywood conception of the psychopathic killer. But the notion of the “successful psychopath” has existed for a long time. In the 1940s, American psychologist Hervey M. Cleckley articulated this apparent contradiction, postulating that many psychopaths are able to assume a veneer of normalcy which enables them to play a legitimate role within society.

 In his 2012 book, The Wisdom of Psychopaths, psychologist Kevin Dutton expanded on Cleckley’s thesis. Dutton controversially asserted that in certain professions and high pressure situations, the attributes of psychopaths not only help them function but also position them to excel. Emotional detachment and fearlessness help them advance in business and earn them distinction in military service. Dutton posits a spectrum of psychopathy, with violent criminals at one end and elite soldiers and CEOs at the other. The crucial distinction, he says, is how psychopaths choose to channel their unique personality traits, none of which are “inherently bad in themselves” but are detrimental “when they are deployed inflexibly.” In other words, if psychopaths apply their ruthlessness too strongly or inappropriately, it transforms into callousness. Are psychopaths able to modulate their own behavior? Dutton believes so: “The key is having the right combination of traits at the right levels and in the right context.” He believes the contributions of psychopaths tend to be short term rather than long term, but concludes that the small number of them occupying key positions represents a net gain for society overall.

 Psychologist Martha Stout, author of The Sociopath Next Door, is working to alert people to the dangers of psychopathy and disputes Dutton’s claim. Countering his idea that psychopathy is present in degrees, she points out that so­called moderate psychopaths would be more accurately characterized as narcissists people who are egotistical and lack empathy, but who “nonetheless, in their own way, can love.” By definition, psychopaths are without a conscience, and are thus incapable of caring or exhibiting the “wisdom” Dutton optimistically ascribes to them. Stout also holds that the grounds on which Dutton bases his arguments are shaky. “Most of the science that he cites possesses a relationship to his thesis that is equivocal at best, and at worst downright misleading,” she writes. Evidence from recent studies supports Stout’s position. Researchers have found that, despite their charm, psychopaths in management positions often create counterproductive, chaotic work environments marred by bullying, conflict, and a lack of well­being among employees. Moreover, a study of hedge fund managers conducted by the University of Denver found that those with psychopathic tendencies produced lower returns over time. They may be effective at gaining power, but when it comes to using that authority constructively, psychopaths seem to fall short.

CRISPR Gene Editing with Japanese Dictionary

　Gregor Mendel’s discovery of the principles of genetic inheritance in the 1860s opened the way for scientists to manipulate plant and animal genes. In the early years of genetic manipulation, however, the rate of mutagenesis, or genetic change, could not be controlled directly through selective breeding, so results were often unpredictable and required generations of trial and error. Later developments, such as employing radiation and chemical treatments, succeeded in accelerating mutagenesis, but produced results just as random as breeding did.

　It finally became possible to directly manipulate an organism’s genome through the insertion of foreign DNA in the 1970s, but the first techniques developed were not suitable for targeting a specific location on the genome. Even when the targeting of specific genes through the synthesis of artificial proteins became a reality, an elaborate and time­-consuming process was necessary to adapt the delivery system for each individual gene. This severely restricted the techniques’ potential applications.

　It was not until 2012 that scientists developed a technology commonly referred to as CRISPR, which has tremendous potential as a superior method for manipulating genes. CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. In nature, CRISPRs are used by bacteria to defend themselves from viruses and consist of repeating sequences of DNA building blocks, or nucleotides, within the bacteria’s DNA which are able to store segments of DNA from viruses. When a bacterium is attacked by a virus and is successful in exterminating it, the bacterium sends out enzymes which collect the virus’s DNA. They then cut it into smaller sections and store it between the bacterium’s CRISPRs as a reference to be used in case of future attacks. If the bacterium is attacked by the same virus again, the stored DNA from the previously defeated virus is copied into molecules, which then assist a predatory enzyme in navigating to a specific site in the virus’s genome. The enzyme then chops a section out of the virus’s DNA, thereby making it harmless.

　The discovery of a preexisting, natural mechanism capable of altering specific DNA sequences to remove, add, or alter genetic mate rial turned out to be a godsend to geneticists. In the years since, scientists have figured out not only how to trick CRISPRs into hunting for and cutting non-viral DNA, but also how to insert desired DNA sequences into the spaces between the CRISPRs and use the natural cellular repair mechanisms of DNA to patch up where cuts have been made. CRISPR can be utilized to target and remove or replace any segment of any organism’s DNA. Additionally, because it is self­-contained and self­-directed, CRISPR can achieve, in a few hours and at a negligible price, what previous techniques took weeks or months to accomplish.

　While numerous industries are interested in CRISPR, the immediate beneficiaries are the medical and agricultural sectors. The technology offers the possibility of not only eliminating diseases that stem from gene defects but also potentially changing the face of medicine by expanding the roles of beneficial genes. Imagine directing immune cells to fight cancerous tumors or growing transplantable human organs in pigs to name just two projects that researchers are optimistic about. Agricultural scientists envision attaining long cherished goals such as creating crops resistant to insect pests and disease or developing new crop varieties packed with nutrition. Since CRISPR edits DNA so precisely and allows for genetic editing instead of including alien genes in the target organism, its proponents in the agricultural sector believe it can allay the fears of genetic contamination that are associated with genetically modified (GM) products, allowing CRISPR created crops to circumvent the criticism and strict regulations GM crops are subject to.

　The principles of genetic inheritance predict individual genes have a 50 percent chance of being inherited by the next generation during sexual reproduction. In theory, CRISPR can increase that probability to nearly 100 percent, which would empower scientists to spread a modified gene throughout an entire species to effect a desired change. Scientists envision changing the rules of inheritance to eradicate mankind’s worst afflictions by engineering their extinction or that of the species that spread them. Malaria, Lyme disease, and invasive species are already being targeted for eradication with this technology, despite the potential for unintended consequences.

　Those consequences, however, are one reason critics say CRISPR gene editing is no magic bullet. The knock-­on effects of destroying, say, every Anopheles mosquito on Earth in order to eliminate malaria are almost certainly greater than anyone can anticipate. Furthermore, there have been instances in lab experiments in which CRISPR has targeted a DNA sequence at locations other than where scientists expected the DNA cut to occur. Additionally, recent studies have shown CRISPR­-edited cells can trigger cancer. At this point, the risks and uncertainty surrounding how CRISPR works and how inheritance of its genetic changes will affect subsequent generations are too great to take anything but a cautious approach.