Bus-Route Economics (with Japanese Dictionary)
Since 2010, thousands of bus routes across Britain have been eliminated or privatized due to cuts in funding received from the national government. Local governments still have the right to fund the less popular routes themselves, but at the same time, the national government requires them to spend huge amounts on providing free bus passes for seniors and disabled people. For this reason, many rural districts ( 26 ). Although the local governments realize these bus routes are essential for residents to have access to things like jobs and hospitals, these governments have so many other expenses and responsibilities that they are unable to pay for everything.
In contrast, both bus usage and the number of routes have increased in London despite the partial privatization of the bus market. The city maintained its ability to plan all aspects of the bus network, such as routes, frequency, and fares. This has been ( 27 ). The degree of control the city has over the bus system enables it to transfer funds from more profitable bus routes. This allows it to subsidize those which generate less revenue but are important for the disadvantaged people who rely on them.
Claire Haigh, chief executive of an association promoting bus travel, believes bus services are crucial to Britain’s economic health. According to experts, every pound invested in bus services generates eight pounds’ worth of wider benefits to the economy. ( 28 ), it seems that local governments must make every effort to restore and even increase their local bus routes.
Samuel Plimsoll and the Waterline
In the nineteenth century, nearly a thousand sailors drowned annually while working on British merchant ships. The deaths were mostly the result of ships being loaded with too much cargo, increasing the chance that the vessels which were usually in poor condition would sink in rough seas. These tragic disasters ( 29 ). Many of these so-called coffin ships were heavily insured, and a ship’s sinking would result in a significant insurance payout. Many of the ships were therefore overloaded in the hope they would wind up at the bottom of the sea.
Wanting to save lives, reformers led by a merchant and politician named Samuel Plimsoll began promoting the use of “waterlines,” which were horizontal stripes painted on ships’ sides to indicate whether they were overloaded. If the lines were visible, it meant ( 30 ). This idea had been used successfully on other countries’ ships since the Middle Ages. When ships were overloaded, they sank deeper in the water and the waterline would be covered up, so it was immediately obvious if there was a problem.
Shipowners resisted the introduction of the waterline by using their considerable influence in Parliament to block legislation proposed by Plimsoll. ( 31 ), Plimsoll was sued repeatedly over accusations he made against various members of Parliament and shipowners. He did not give up, however, and by attracting widespread public support for his campaign, he was able to get legislation passed that required waterlines to be painted on all British ships. As a result, Plimsoll is still remembered today as “the sailors’ friend.”
Superbugs
A British government study has shown that infections caused by drug-resistant bacteria those that cannot be controlled by antibiotics kill about 700,000 people worldwide annually. By 2050, this number could rise to over 10 million. “It’s just a fact of evolution the more antibiotics that are around, the more bacteria has been exposed to antibiotics, the more opportunity they have to acquire these resistances,” explains Sarah Fortune, a professor of immunology and infectious diseases at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. Although these drug-resistant bacteria, known as “superbugs,” are found around the world, India is considered to have the biggest problem because the factors that encourage superbugs are extensive and widespread in that country.
One cause is the overuse of antibiotics, which are frequently taken for illnesses that do not require them. Additionally, India’s pharmaceutical industry is releasing alarmingly high levels of antibiotics into the environment because the treatment facilities that process the industry’s wastewater do not effectively remove the drugs. Antibiotics also enter soil and water via animal waste because livestock are regularly fed the drugs to promote rapid growth and prevent disease. Poor infrastructure means India’s waterways are already polluted with bacteria, which develop resistance when exposed to antibiotics.
Solving the superbug problem is not as easy as simply restricting the availability of antibiotics, however. These medicines are sold without prescriptions in India because many communities do not have doctors available to prescribe them, and research has shown that lack of access to antibiotics would cause more deaths than infections by superbugs would. Therefore, many people believe minimizing the amount of antibiotics and bacteria in waterways and improving water quality locally are the keys to preventing the spread of superbugs globally. Indian prime minister Narendra Modi has been campaigning to clean the country’s contaminated Ganges River, and in 2017 India announced a plan to regulate antibiotic waste being released into the environment by drug manufacturers.
The Quartz Crisis
In the mid-twentieth century, Swiss companies ruled the international watch market. Their mechanical timepieces, famous for reliability, used a complex system of springs and gears to keep time. Swiss dominance, however, was challenged by a new technology that used an electronic device called an “oscillator,” which was regulated by a quartz crystal, to measure time. This led to battery-powered watches that were cheaper and more precise. Despite quartz technology having been developed with the help of Swiss inventors, Swiss watchmakers looked down on the lower technical skill involved in producing quartz watches. By the 1970s, however, inexpensive quartz timepieces manufactured in both Japan and the United States had flooded the market. Swiss companies were slow to respond, even when it became clear quartz would dominate the global market, and Swiss watch exports fell sharply. World-famous brands were put out of business, and by the end of the 1970s, the industry’s work force had shrunk considerably.
Unlike Japanese and American manufacturers, Swiss watch companies were small to medium-sized businesses and could not compete in terms of both large-scale production and mass marketing. Furthermore, the Swiss were incredibly hesitant to embrace technological innovation. It was not, however, simply a matter of losing to quartz technology: in the 1970s, Japanese watchmakers began manufacturing inexpensive mechanical watches similar to those made by the Swiss. They were able to maintain a high standard of quality by decreasing and continuously refining the range of models. This proved incredibly profitable, allowing them to overtake the Swiss in this market too. Swiss watchmakers faced further trouble when the US dollar lost roughly 60 percent of its value against the Swiss franc, causing a sharp rise in the prices of Swiss imports to the United States.
The 1980s, however, brought two developments that saved the Swiss watch industry. Manufacturers focused on the uniqueness and history of Swiss watches by increasing prices and promoting the art of watchmaking, transforming their products into high-end status symbols. Although successful, this strategy required the manufacturers to reinvest large percentages of their profits back into marketing. At the lower end of the market, restructuring and the adoption of efficient production methods led to the creation of the Swatch in 1983 an inexpensive quartz watch that became an instant hit, selling millions and becoming a fashionable brand in its own right. Although only a fraction of today’s watches are Swiss made, the revival of the Swiss watch industry lies not in the volume of sales but in the reestablishment of the desirability of the Swiss brand.
A Makeover for Hoover Dam
Hydropower has attracted increasing attention in recent years as a renewable type of clean energy. As long as a suitable water source is available, hydropower facilities are usually good investments, producing energy in a manner that generates far less air pollution and CO2 emissions than fossil fuels do. The most common way to generate hydropower is to trap water at a high elevation behind a dam so it can be released and used to spin turbines below, which, in turn, power electricity-producing generators. However, hydropower has its drawbacks. Droughts and increased water consumption have reduced the flow of many rivers. As rivers become shallower, the necessary volume of water for electricity generation is more difficult to maintain, and power supply and dependability are negatively impacted.
Variability in water levels has particularly affected Hoover Dam, a mega-scale hydropower facility in the US state of Nevada. Built in the 1930s at enormous expense to control the frequently flooding Colorado River and maintain a water supply for farmland irrigation, the dam’s hydropower capabilities were seen as a way to recover some of the costs of its construction over the long term. The dam’s electricity-generating capacity, however, was challenged from the start by seasonal variability in water flow, and in recent years has been greatly reduced by droughts.
Combining hydropower with other alternative energy sources, though, may offer a solution. Solar and wind plants can produce enormous amounts of electricity, but one serious downside is that the energy they produce is not available when there is little sun or wind. While conventional batteries can help with this issue, storing such tremendous volumes of electricity has long been a challenge. A recently proposed system for Hoover Dam could provide an answer, though. The plan suggests building a new pumping station that would be powered by both wind and solar. It would push water from the river back up to Hoover Dam, refilling the lake behind it. The water could be released anytime to power the dam’s generators in order to reliably meet demand for electricity. Kelly Sanders, an engineering professor at the University of Southern California, is enthusiastic about the storage plan, saying, “We don’t have anything on the horizon as far as batteries of that magnitude.”
Of course, any project as ambitious as this, with its $3 billion price tag for a pipeline and pump station powered by solar and wind energy, is likely to attract objections. Communities downstream from Hoover Dam fear a further reduction in water levels in the Colorado River could endanger jobs in tourism and recreation, and environmental activists have expressed concern that wildlife populations and wetlands could also be impacted by the project. With the urgent need to secure energy sources that can replace fossil fuels, however, the pressure to use hydropower to supplement solar and wind power sources seems sure to intensify. While the project is still in the planning stages, and various governmental approvals are still required, if everything goes as scheduled, the alterations to the dam could be completed by 2028.
(1) A: I wish my children were as ( ) as yours.
B: Oh, they’re only doing what I tell them because you’re here. Usually, they pay no attention at all.
1 obedient 2 immense 3 squeaky 4 wretched
(2) The politician gave a very brief reply to the reporter’s question about the scandal. Although the reporter asked her for more details, she refused to ( ).
1 terminate 2 elaborate 3 dedicate 4 activate
(3) Queen Elizabeth I’s ( ) lasted from 1558 to 1603. This long period of rule helped to create political stability in England.
1 reign 2 trace 3 slump 4 chore
(4) After a number of miners died in an accident, the mining company ( ) their families. No amount of money, however, could replace the men whose lives had been lost.
1 compensated 2 deployed 3 amended 4 worshipped
(5) When shopping for a used car, it is important to find a ( ) dealer. It is easy for dealers to cheat you if you do not know much about cars.
1 compulsive 2 dependent 3 reputable 4 fertile
(6) A: Is everything ready for the restaurant’s grand opening tomorrow? B: I think so. There will ( ) be some problems on the first day, but hopefully nothing major will go wrong.
1 densely 2 remarkably 3 charitably 4 inevitably
(7) The soldier was given a special medal to ( ) him for the bravery he showed during the battle.
1 evade 2 revoke 3 commend 4 seclude
(8) Takeshi’s ( ) to his school’s science competition was a robot that picked up trash. When he entered it, he was confident he would win.
1 circumstance 2 sentiment 3 appliance 4 submission
(9) After viewing the ( ) caused by the hurricane, the president promised government aid to help rebuild the affected areas.
1 corruption 2 evaluation 3 justification 4 devastation
(10) Since research shows that a poor diet is one of the ( ) causes of heart disease, the government has said it will do more to teach people how to eat healthily.
1 underlying 2 hoarse 3 ecstatic 4 miniature
(11) Management agreed to give workers a 5 percent pay increase as a ( ), but only if they ended their strike immediately.
1 disclosure 2 concession 3 depot 4 showdown
(12) Dr. Stamitts encourages her patients to ( ) long-term goals for weight loss. She wants them to make a plan they can follow throughout their lives. 1 discard 2 formulate 3 displace 4 illuminate
(13) The local government has just declared Greenwich Valley a wildlife ( ). In an effort to protect animal populations, no hunting will be allowed in the area.
1 baseline 2 detention 3 foresight 4 refuge
(14) When Gary goes shopping, he ( ) spends more than he planned to. He cannot stop himself, even when he is trying to save money.
1 lawfully 2 stealthily 3 dreadfully 4 invariably
(15) The committee’s decision to give the prize to the young scientist was nearly ( ). Only one of the eight members voted against it.
1 unanimous 2 insane 3 crisp 4 rash
(16) After the earthquake, experts began ( ) the extent of the damage to buildings. They issued reports about which ones were safe to continue to use. 1 magnifying 2 assessing 3 overdoing 4 encasing
(17) A: I finished cleaning my room, Dad.
B: It looks better, but what about all that ( ) on your desk? Put those things away in your drawers.
1 collage 2 accordance 3 privilege 4 clutter
(18) As part of their campaign against drunk driving, the police set up checkpoints during the holidays to stop drivers and make sure they were ( ).
1 outgoing 2 cheery 3 sober 4 unstable
(19) The roses were not growing well, so Sheila decided to ( ) them to another part of the garden. She hoped they would do better if they had more sunlight.
1 transplant 2 conceal 3 interact 4 soak
(20) Jake has become ( ) with his new video game system. His parents are worried because he spends all his time playing games instead of studying.
1 obsessed 2 spontaneous 3 cowardly 4 verbal
(21) To prevent the import of illegal goods, all ships are checked at the ( ) before their cargo is unloaded.
1 hurdle 2 slot 3 anthem 4 dock
(22) When the boxing match started, the two fighters immediately ( ) it with all their energy. As the fight went on, however, they both became tired.
1 went at 2 fell over 3 held off 4 picked through
(23) Last night, thieves broke into the city’s biggest art museum and ( ) paintings worth more than $15 million.
1 kept ahead of 2 lined up for
(24) Craig’s consulting business grew quickly. He soon found he could not ( ) all of his clients’ needs by himself, so he hired an assistant.
1 sell out 2 buy into 3 attend to 4 slip on
(25) Lex was late for work almost every day, so his boss finally told him that if he did not ( ), he would be fired.
