Beyond Small Talk

Research indicates that the relationships people have can influence their well­-being. Positive relationships not only lead to increased happiness but also have a beneficial effect on physical health. So far, most studies have focused on relationships with people we are close to, such as family members or friends. This makes sense, as when we have a problem or want to share our thoughts and opinions, we are most likely to talk to such people. ( 26 ), some recent studies have explored how we interact with strangers, and the results were rather surprising.

In one study, subjects were paired up with someone they had never met before, and each pair was asked to come up with a light discussion topic, such as the weather, and a more substantial one, such as their personal goals. At the beginning of the study, most subjects thought they would enjoy casual conversations more. After each conversation, the subjects were asked to rate it based on enjoyment and feeling of connection with their partners. The results showed that the ( 27 ). That is, most subjects reported having a more positive experience overall after discussing serious topics.

The study’s results suggest that people would benefit from interacting on a deeper level with strangers. In fact, the subjects in the study generally expressed a desire to have meaningful conversations with people they did not know more often in their lives. However, they also thought that ( 28 ). The researchers believe that this assumption is incorrect, and that, for the most part, strangers are also interested in going beyond casual conversation.

The Thing

After spending nearly a decade on a museum shelf in Chile, a mysterious fossil known as “The Thing” has finally been identified. Researchers now believe it is a 66-­million­year-­old soft-­shelled egg and that it probably contained a mosasaur, a large aquatic reptile that existed around the same time as dinosaurs. Previous fossil evidence had suggested that mosasaurs ( 29 ). The researchers’ findings challenge this idea, however, and the researchers say the fossil’s size and the fact that it was discovered in an area where mosasaur fossils have been found support their conclusion.

Although the researchers are excited to have identified The Thing, it has opened a new debate. One theory suggests mosasaurs would have laid their eggs in open water, with the young hatching almost immediately. ( 30 ), some scientists believe the mosasaurs would have laid their eggs on the beach and buried them, much like some modern reptiles do. Further research, it is hoped, will reveal which of these is correct.

Another group of researchers from the United States has shed additional light on the eggs of prehistoric creatures after taking a closer look at previously discovered fossils of baby dinosaurs. It was believed that dinosaurs produced hard-­shelled eggs, but the fossils on which this assumption was based represent a limited number of dinosaur species. Through their analysis, the US researchers discovered evidence that suggests the eggs of early dinosaurs were, in fact, soft­-shelled. If true, this could explain why ( 31 ). Since softer materials break down easily, they are much less likely to be preserved in the fossil record.

The Chicken of Tomorrow

Before the 1940s, most chickens in the United States were raised on family farms, and the main emphasis was on egg production rather than obtaining meat. Poverty and food shortages were common at that time, so people wanted to maintain a regular source of protein without sacrificing their chickens. Additionally, there were a tremendous variety of chickens being raised, as farmers generally chose a breed based on how well it was adapted to the local conditions whether it was suited to a dry or a humid climate, for example.

After World War II, however, the growing availability of meat such as pork and beef meant eggs could not compete as a source of protein. The US Department of Agriculture therefore set up an event called the Chicken of Tomorrow contest to find a type of chicken that could be raised economically and produced more meat. The overall winner, which was a combination of different breeds, grew faster and larger than other types, and it could adapt to various climates. Inspired by the contest, breeding companies began creating complicated mixtures of chicken varieties to guarantee a consistent supply of birds with these same desirable features. Since producing such genetic combinations was difficult, most farmers had no choice but to purchase young chickens from those companies rather than breeding them by themselves a development that completely changed the industry.

The contest helped popularize the consumption of chicken meat, but this trend also had a dark side. It became more economical to raise massive numbers of chickens in large facilities where they were confined in small cages. Not only did this force numerous small farms out of business, but it also created conditions for the birds that, according to animal rights activists, caused the chickens stress and led to higher levels of sickness. While the contest made chicken a regular food item, some people questioned whether it was worth it.

Discipline in American Schools

For decades, methods of discipline used in American schools have been based on the theories of psychologist B. F. Skinner, who believed that systems of reward and punishment were the most effective methods of improving people’s behavior. Commonly, students who break rules are given punishments, such as being prohibited from attending classes for a day or more or being made to stay in class after the school day ends. These are designed to teach the students to follow teachers’ instructions and respect classmates. Recent psychological studies, however, have determined that as effective as punishment may be in bringing peace to the classroom temporarily, it can intensify the very behavior it is intended to correct when used continually over an extended period of time.

Many experts now believe that in order for children to learn to behave appropriately, it is essential that they develop self­-control. When students are punished to make them obey the rules, they are being forced to adopt good behavior through external pressure. Self­control, on the other hand, comes from internal motivation, self­confidence, and the ability to be tolerant of others, and using punishment as a substitute for these things can actually delay or prevent their development. Similarly, the use of rewards such as stickers leads to students merely attempting to please the teacher rather than understanding the importance of gaining knowledge and social skills that will help them throughout their lives.

In recent years, an increasing amount of research has been backing up these ideas. A region of the brain known as the prefrontal cortex helps us to concentrate on tasks and is responsible for self­-discipline and allowing us to consider the consequences of our actions. Research suggests that the prefrontal cortex may be less developed in students with behavioral problems. Fortunately, though, there is evidence that repeated experiences can alter the brain’s structure, which suggests that it is also possible to influence the development of the prefrontal cortex. Child­-behavior expert Ross Greene believes that when educators change their attitudes so that they actually listen to students’ feelings about their bad behavior and encourage them to come up with solutions to the issues they face, this can have a physical effect on the prefrontal cortex. Greene has designed a highly successful program that has greatly reduced behavioral problems at many schools, and as a result of the extensive media coverage his ideas have received in recent years, they are being adopted by more and more educators.